Sunday, May 8, 2011

Filíocht - Gaeilge / Irish Poetry Notes - Leaving Cert


Filíocht: (STANDARD 5)
Gealt
le Áine Ní Ghlinn

Téamaí
  • Cad is gealt ann?
  • Claonadh
  • Ord á úsáid chun cnó a bhriseadh
  • Magadh faoin sochaí coimeádach
  • Soineantacht an pháiste
  • Géarchúis an linbh
Cinéal dáin
  • Aoir éadrom ar mheabhairghalair i measc an phobail
  • Cur síos faisnéiseach
  • Gach duine ina steillbheatha
  • Ag súil le hionsaí
  • Ag magadh faoi na gnáthdhaoine
  • An focal deireanach fágtha ag an bpáiste
  • Gealt ar an mbus
  • Sceimhle ar na paisinéirí
  • Fios ar na seirbhísí éigeandála
  • Gardaí agus arm ag fanacht leis an mbus
  • Dochtúir leis na gléasanna smachtú ag fanacht
  • An gealt ag imeacht faoi smacht na ndochtúir
  • Osna faoisimh ó na paisinéir
  • Ceist an pháiste
Teicníochtaí Filíochta
  • Íomhánna
    Sraith de phictiúir ghreannmhara
    Pictiúr di fhear ar an mbus agus an tionchar atá aige ar na paisnéirí eile
  • Siombailí
    Ag caitheamh pitseámaí = as do mheabhair
    Mála cáipéisí agus babhlaer = normáltacht,
  • Friotal
    An oiriúnach don ábhar
    Léiríonn an friotal an cíor thuathail ar an mbus
  • Atmaisféar
    Cruthaítear teannas, sceimhle agus míchompord ar an mbus
  • Uaim
    Úsáid forleathan d’uaim a chuireann leis an ngreann
  • Athrá
    Cuireann sé le drámaíocht an dáin
  • Greann
    Sa chur síos a tugtar ar na pearsana sa dán:
    gealt
    fear an bhriefcase
    Bean
    máthair
    tiománaí an bhus
    na gardaí i agus an t-arm
    na dochtúirí
  • Caint díreach
    beocht
    drámaíocht
  • Abairtí
    gearr
    alán briathra = béim ar ghastacht na n-eachtraí
    tús na habairte mar an gcéanna = rí-rá
    sraith pictiúr
  • Codarsnacht
    idir an gealt agus na daoine coimeádacha
    soineantacht an pháiste
    agus claontacht na ndaoine eile
    comhionannas idir an páiste agus an ghealt
Meadaracht
  • Saorvéarsaíocht
  • Rithim na gnáthchainte
Teideal
  • Dlúthbhaint idir teideal agus téama
  • Comhartha ceiste
  • Ciallaíonn ‘Gealt’ duine le galar intinne








Níl aon ní
le Cathal Ó Searcaigh

Téamaí
  • Áilleacht na háite
  • Áit dhúchais an fhile
  • Spreagann sé rabharta filíochta
  • Codarsnacht idir Dún na nGall agus Baile Átha Cliath
Teicníochtaí Filíochta
Íomhánna
  • Clapsholas smólaigh
  • Buicéad stáin na spéire
  • Siolastrach Ghleann an Átha
  • Briathra ag blathú
  • Cloigíní gorma
  • Brúch bhailte balscóideacha
  • Gleo tráchta
  • Ciúnchónaí sléibhe
  • An ceo le teacht na hoíche
Logainmneacha
  • Ceol agus drámaíocht
  • Comhbhá an fhile lena áit dhúchais
  • Fuaim shíochánta
  • Blas pearsanta áitiúil:
    Caiseal na gCorr
    Inis Bó Finne
    Gleann an Átha
    Fána Bhuí
    Mín na Craoibhe
Fuaimfhoclaíocht
Atmaisféar ciúin síochánta:
  • Gutaí fada
  • Fuaim bhog “s
  • Buaileadh na gcloigíní
  • Uaim
Comhfhocail agus aidiachtaí a bhfuil úire ag baint leo
  • Chun mórán a rá i mbeagán focal:
    clapsholas smólaigh
    ciúnchónaí sléibhe
Codarsnacht
  • Idir na fuaimeanna garbha agus na fuaimeanna boga ceolmhara
  • Codarsnacht a chloisteáil:
    an chathair – athrá ar an bhfuaim gharbh “ch” agus an consan pléascach “b”
    an tuath – gutaí fada = atmaisféar an tsuaimhnis
Meadaracht
  • Saorvéarsaíocht
  • Comhfhuaim idir líne a agus líne c
Mothúcháin
  • Grá don dúlra
  • Grá do chiúnas na háíte
  • Grá don áit dhúchais
  • Grá an duine eile do Bhaile Átha Cliath





















Mo Ghille Mear   /   Bímse buan ar buairt gach ló
Le Seán Clárach Mac Domhnaill

Téamaí
Is caoineadh é ar éirí amach na nGael Albanach (1745) ar son an Phrionsa Seárlas Éadbhard Stíobhart agus an buille marfach a tugadh do réim na nGael in Albain
  • Áilleacht agus simplíocht na cainte
  • Amhrán Seacaibíteach
  • Fallás na Truamhéala
Teicníochtaí Filíochta
Íomhánna
 ag caoi   
 brón
 buachaill beo
 laoch óg
 mo laoch  
 uaisle
 mo ghille mear
 cróga
 mo Shaesar 
 ríoga
 cuach 
 dúlra ag déanamh comhbhrón
 fíorchaoin uaisle 
 na taoisigh
 saoithe is suadha
 fir léannta / filí
 Phoebus 
 grian
 ar chaomhchneas
 truafhallas, brat gruama ar an ngealach
 saobha ar spéir
  trína chéile
 spéirling mhór
 stoirm
 an leon 
 laochas
 cruachruit cheoil 
 siombal na cruthaitheachta/ filíochta
 éigse i ngruam
faoi bhrón


Friotal
  • Oiriúnach do théama an dáin agus na mothúcháin
Atmaisféar
  • Atmaisféar an-bhrónach, uaigneach, éadóchasach tríd síos.
Dúlra
  • Tá an dúlra ag caoineadh an imeachta agus claochlaithe
Uaim agus aicill
  • Alán samplaí d’uaim agus d’aicill sa dán.
Meadaracht
  • Meadaracht an chaointe
  • Patrún na ngutaí
  • Rann 1 (í / ua / ue / ó ) *4
  • Curfá (é / é / í / a ) *4
  • Uaim bímse buan ar b uairt …
Mothúcháin
  • Brón faoi dhroch-staid na tíre
  • Uaigneas i ndiaidh na seanlaochra
  • Cumha, ag féachaint siar ar an seansaol
  • Moladh do na filí

Jack
le Máire Mhac an tSaoi

Téamaí
  • Cuimhní an fhile ar leannán
  • Léargas ar shaol  / luachanna na tuaithe
  • Siombal é Jack de na luachanna
  • Cuimhní speisialta pearsanta a bhaineann leí
Teicníochtaí Filíochta
Íomhanna
Strapaire fionn
 Láidreacht
Mac feirmeora
 Luachanna na tuaithe
Úrlár soimint
 Atmaisféar na hallaí rince
A ghéaga ...
 Grá
Gáire ciúin 
 Beagbheann ar chách
Léine bhán
 Ag cur crutha air féin
Samhradh
 Ré glórmhar in óige an fhile
Friotal
  • Friotal gonta saibhir
  • Macallaí na teanga traidisiúnta
  • Oireann an friotal don téama agus don ábhar
Codarsnacht
  • Codarsnacht idir saol atá in ndán don chailín agus don bhuachaill.
  • Is cuairteoir í an chailín
  • Is leaid áitiúil é an buachaill 
Meadaracht
  • Saorvéarsaíocht
  • 4 líne i ngach rann
  • 4 bhéim sa líne
  • Comhfhuaim dheiridh tríd síos ( í)
Mothúcháin
  • Grá
  • Maoithneachas
  • Brón
  • Áthas
  • Cumha
  • Uaigneas
  • Lúcháir
  • Bród
Cineál dáin
  • Liric phearsanta – tionchar a bhí ag Jack uirthi

 

Faoiseamh a Gheobhadsa
le Máirtín Ó Direáin

Téamaí
  • Saol an oileáin agus an faoiseamh atá le fáil ag an bhfile ann
  • Uaigneas an fhile i measc sluaite na cathrach
  • An codarsnacht a fheiceann sé idir saol na tuaithe agus saol na cathrach
  • Ní áit in Éirinn atá i gceist ag an bhfile ach na daoine san áit sin.
Teideal
  • Ciallaíonn faoiseamh sos  nó fuascailt
  • Faigheann an file fuascailt i measc a mhuintir in Árainn.
Cineál dáin
  • Liric ghairid
  • Dán gairid simplí
  • Gontacht
  • Snoiteacht
Teicníochtaí Filíochta
Íomhánna
Tá dhá phictiúr ós ár gcomhair
  • Aoibhneas an oileáin
  • Cíor thuathail na cathrach
Siombailí
  • An t-oileán = saol idéalach
  • An chathair = saol gránna
Friotal
  • Friotal gonta simplí
  • Bunaithe ar rithim nádúrtha na cainte
  • Easpa ornáidíochta
Codarsnacht
  • Tá an dán bunaithe ar chodarsnacht
  • Saol na tuaithe = áit fháilteach dhúchasach = atmaisféar ciúin síochánta
  • Saol na cathrach = áit duairc uaigneach = atmaisféar lán le teannas
Athrá
  • Ag tús gach véarsa agus ag deireadh gach véarsa
  • Treisíonn sé uaigneas an fhile sa chathair
  • Treisíonn sé dúil an fhile filleadh  ar an oileán
  • Úsáid éifeachtach a chuireann go mór leis an nóta pearsanta sa dán
Dúlra
  • Tá tús áite tugtha don dúlra sa dán
  • Cur síos ar áilleacht na tuaithe
  • Caitheamh anuas ar shaol na cathrach
Meadaracht
  • Rosc a thugtar ar an meadaracht seo
  • Dhá bhéim i ngach líne
  • Bunaithe ar rithim nádúrtha na teanga labhartha
  • Samplaí d’uaim, comhfhuaim agus comhardadh deireadh
Mothúcháin
  • Uaigneas
  • Brón agus gruaim
  • Imní
  • Míshocracht
  • Dóchas


Ceapadóireacht - Leaving cert Irish/Gaeilge notes


Gaeilge
Ceapadóireacht – aiste
80 mins 2 ½ pages
The essay, or aiste, is a literary composition which presents the ideas of the writer on a chosen topic. It is usually informal in style and brief in scope.
Nuair a bhíonn aiste á scríobh agat, ba cheart duit machnamh a dhéanamh ar na haidhmeanna ginearálta seo a bhfuil ag an Roinn Oideachais:
  • Go mbeidh tú ábalta tú féin a chur in iúl le cruinneas agus le beachtas teanga.
  • Go mbeidh tú ábalta tuairimí a nochtadh go lán-mhuiníneach trí mheán na scríbhneoireachta.
  • Go mbeidh tú in ann stíl phearsanta a fhorbairt de réir a chéile.
    • Tá ort aiste a scríobh ar cheann amháin de na trí cinn a thugtar duit.
    • Ní gá dul thar 500-600 focal nó mar sin (timpeall 2.5 leathanach).
    • Beidh timpeall 80 nóiméad agat chun Aiste a scríobh.
    • Ní mór duit cúram a dhéanamh de chruinneas na teanga agus caillfear marcanna trí bheith faillíoch ann.
    • Smaoinigh go bhfuil formhór na marcanna ag dul do chaighdeán na Gaeilge (80%) agus níl ach fíorbheagán ag dul don ábhar (20%).

Tabhair na pointí seo a leanas faoi deara

  • Nuair atá an aiste roghnaithe agat, téigh go dtí an leathanach deireanach de do leabhar freagraí agus scríobh síos pé smaointe faoin aiste a thagann isteach i do chloigeann.
  • Cuir na smaointe seo in ord agus in eagar agus bíodh trí roinn, go bunúsach, agat ansin, sé sin, tús na haiste, corp na haiste agus críoch na haiste.
  • Tús - Bíodh alt láidir amháin agat ina dtugann tú do thuairim féin faoin ábhar seo. Tóg mar shampla na habairtí seo a leanas : "Ní dócha go raibh am riamh ann ina ndéantar an oiread sin cainte ar 'Uaigneas'. Is féidir leat féachaint ar an teilifís agus beidh daoine ag caint 'is ag comhrá faoin ábhar seo. Tá na páipéir nuachta tuillte agus lán go béal leis an scéal céanna. Dúirt John Donne sa Bhéarla fadó 'No man is an island' agus tá an smaoineamh céanna le fáil sa Ghaeilge sa sheanfhocal 'Ar scáth a chéile a mhaireann daoine'..."
  • Corp - Bíodh thart ar thrí nó ar cheithre cinn de phointí agat anseo. Is fiú dhá thaobh den scéal a phlé i gcorp na haiste.
  • Críoch - Bíodh an críoch mar achoimre agatsa ar an ábhar anseo. Tóg mar shampla na habairtí seo a leanas: "Mar a dúirt mé cheana, is iomaí rud atá scríofa faoin ábhar seo agus is furasta a thuiscint cén fáth. Ba chóir go mbeadh a thuairim féin ag gach duine faoin ábhar seo. Is ceist tábhachtach, phráinneach agus láithreach é. Tá orainn go léir é a scrudú agus a chíoradh go mion. B'fhéidir, lá éigin, dá mbeadh díospóireacht agus plé againn ar an gceist seo go mbeadh iompú bisigh ann san ábhar seo 'Uaigneas'."

Seo roinnt leideanna eile

  • Go hiondúil, baineann na haistí le réimse an dalta scoile. Dá bhrí sin, bíodh eolas agat ar thoipicí cosúil le daoine óga, cúrsaí oideachais, spóirt agus caitheamh aimsire, an Ghaeilge, na meáin cumarsáide, taisteal agus teangacha, cultúr agus an timpeallacht.
  • Bain úsáid as an gcleas seo. Cuir na ceisteanna seo ort féin agus tú ag smaoineamh ar ábhar na haiste - Cé?, Céard?, Cén áit?, Cathain?, agus Cén fáth? agus scríobh síos na freagraí ar do leathanach deireanach i do leabhar freagraí.
  • Bíodh an Gaeilge san aiste gearr, simplí agus cruinn. Seachain abairtí fada.
  • Cruinnigh do chuid cainte le hábhar na haiste agus ná téigh ar strae le caint scaipthe, scaoilte. Bíodh ábhar na haiste géar gonta, spéisiúil, pearsanta agus chomh fada agus is féidir, bíodh bua na samhlaíochta ann.
  • Smaoinigh go bhfuil a stíl phearsanta féin ag gach duine a scríobhann aiste. Dá bhrí sin, lean ort ag scríobh!


Limestone/Distinctive landscape - Geography Leaving Cert Notes/Sample answer


With reference to one rock type explain how it was formed and how it can produce a distinctive landscape.
·      Carboniferous limestone is a gray sedimentary rock. 
·      Limestone is classed as Organic sedimentary rock, unlike Sandstone witch is Inorganic and Gybsum witch is classed as Chemical.
·      The fact that limestone is Organic means that it is compiled from sediments that were once living. Limestone is made from Decayed marine life eg. Fish bones.
·      Limestone was formed on the bed of a warm sea 350-370 years ago.
·      The minerals that make up limestone are Calcium Carbonate (over 50%) and Calcite (crystalline Calcium Carbonate as well as clay and sand.
·      The above minerals were compacted (squeezed) together to release air and water by the pressure of the sea.
·      Cementing agents in the water bonded the decayed marine life together.
·      Lime stone is stratified (layered), Well Jointed and Permissible (water can pass through).
·      Limestone is soluble in Rain water, as Rain is a carbonic acid witch dissolves the calcium carbonate (the main mineral in limestone) This process is known as carbonation.
·      The bare surface is known as a limestone pavement.
·      In the Burren, Co. Clare limestone has managed to create a astounding, distinctive landscape.
·      The bare limestone has undergone weathering by rain. This left a distinctive limestone pavement landscape known as Karst.
·      To add to the distinctiveness of the Burren. There is a absence of soil as soil needs water to form.
·      This further leads to a lack of any vegetation as plants need soil and water to form.


Biomes - Leaving Cert Geography Notes/Sample Answers


Biomes
You must attempt FOUR questions, as follows:
• Two questions from Section 1
• One question from Section 2
• One question from Section 3
THESE QUESTIONS ARE TO BE ANSWERED IN THE ANSWER BOOK.
SECTION 3 - OPTIONS
N.B. It is better to treat three or four aspects of the theme in some detail than to give a superficial treatment of a large number of points.
These questions require an essay style answer.
·       Introduce your answer.
·       Take 3 or 4 points and develop them in turn.
·       Summarise and conclude.
There are 80 marks for this question; 20 m for cohesion and 60 m for the 3 or 4 points developed 
(3 x 20 m or 4 x 15 m).

The pattern of world climates has given rise to distinctive biomes. These biomes are world regions characterised by groups of plants and animals adapted to specific conditions of climate, soils and biotic interrelationships. Biomes have been altered over time by human activities such as forest clearance by early settlers; intensive agricultural practices and the relatively recent felling of tropical rain forests.
Students should identify one biome for study. They should examine this biome in terms of climatic and soil characteristics and related patterns of animal and vegetation distribution. It would be best to choose a biome that corresponds to one of the regions chosen for study in Core Unit 2 - Regional Geography. The Cool Temperate (or Temperate Forest) biome would suit the Regional choice of Ireland or Western Europe or parts of the U.S.A. If you have chosen North America for your continental region then the Desert biome of e.g. California would be suitable. India provides a good example of the Tropical biome.

In the case of a description of any biome you should give the:
  • Location - The western side of continents between 40º and 60° North and South of the equator. Includes Ireland, parts of U.S.A. Canada, Australia, New Zealand.
  • Climate - As the name implies it is cool, temperate (no-extremes) and moist. Lots of rainfall; mainly southwesterly winds and temperature range from about 4°-18°C.
  • Vegetation - Natural vegetation is temperate deciduous forest A lot of this has been cleared for agriculture.
  • Soils - Soils vary but fertile brown earth predominate.
  • Fauna - A well developed food chain of herbivores (rabbits, deer) and carnivores (foxes etc.).
  • Human Interference - Most of the natural vegetation has been removed for agricultural or forest purposes. Many of these areas have a long history of settlement. In Ireland, for example, almost all of the natural deciduous forests have been removed. In recent years, some of this land has been replanted with conifers.

Answer

An ecosystem is a community of animals and plants treated as a unit with its physical environment, which includes the soil and climatic types present. Typically the characteristics are unique and relatively uniform. On a global scale ecosystems of one type are referred to as a biome.  The biome that I have studied is a Desert Biome. The general climatic and soil characteristics have been adapted to by plants and animals alike. These general characteristics can be looked at individually.
Climatic Characteristics
The weather here is usually very stable in that there are clear skies and little rainfall. Typically < 100 mm of rain a year = desert. The diurnal range is very high. Daytime temperatures can reach 50° and night temperatures can go down to 0°.  The rain shadow effect produced by high mountains can create deserts, for example, theGobi desert north of the Himalayas.  Here the absence of rainfall creates the arid environment that prevails in this climate type. Deserts are also influenced by cold coastal currents, which are moving to the equator from higher latitudes.  These occur on the western fringes of continents, e.g. Kalihari.  Winds that blow over these currents are cooled, decreasing their capacity to hold moisture.  When the air contacts hotter land the air heats and can retain moisture thus the coastal region remains desert. They are generally found between 15° and 30° south and north of the equator, e.g. Sahara. Deserts tend to lie on the western margins or in the centre of continents. There are also some deserts in mid-latitudes between 30° and 40° north and south of the equator.  These are found within the continental interiors, e.g. Gobi.  Deserts can be very arid, arid and semi-arid.  This can depend on a number of factors including: high-pressure belts, rain shadows, cold ocean currents and continentality.
As most deserts are located where high-pressure belts exist (15° to 30° north and south of the equator) air is heated and rises at the equator, moves northward and southward until the air contracts, becomes denser and falls to earth at about 30° latitude.  Compression warms the descending cold air forming high pressure. This air then moves back to the equator or shifts towards the 60° latitude.  Warm air can hold more moisture and so dry winds occur making atmospheric conditions very dry. Continental deserts are found far inland, for example Central Australia.  These areas rarely see rainfall as most has been dropped or evaporated by the winds before they reach them.
Soil Characteristics
The soils are generally known as aridisols. They are fine / sandy in texture to gravely / coarse. They have very little sub-surface horizon development. Low-lying areas tend to have deep soils from millennia of weathering in the highlands where soil is washed down by the rain. The soils are poorly developed due to the lack of rain. They have a high mineral content but low organic content. This means the soils end up being greyish in colour. The soils are easily eroded and allow for evaporation to occur as they do not hold much water. They tend to be quite alkaline and have hard pans due to calcification. Salinisation also occurs with salt pans developing as a result. 

The related patterns of animal and vegetation distribution are as follows.
Plant Life
The plant life that exists has developed specifically to accommodate for the lack of rainfall. Plant life is sparse in these areas except around oasis. Plants like cactus have deep taproots (some up to 30 m long) to access water, thick waxy skin and spikes for protection from evaporation and protection from predators. Fast growing plants (ephemerals) flourish for 2/3 weeks and return to the ground leaving their seeds. With irrigation, agriculture is possible, e.g. along the Nile, Egypt.
Animal Life
The animals have also adapted to this environment.  An example would be the camel (e.g. Dromedary Camel), which has broad hooves to stop it sinking in the sands and thick pads to protect it from the heat.  Their eyelashes are long to protect their eyes from the dust/sandstorms and their coats are pale to protect them from the sun. They are capable of travelling vast distances without taking water due to their water carrying capacity. Another animal, the roadrunner, runs everywhere as it uses less energy than if it were to fly, thus showing another adaptation to the desert environment.

Smart Tips!

Be able to give examples of the characteristics you describe.

An ecosystem is a community of animals and plants treated as a unit with its physical environment. On a global scale, all the ecosystems of one type are referred to as a biome.  The biome that I have studied is aDesert Biome. The general characteristics are as follows.
Distribution: generally found between 15° + 30° south and north of the equator, e.g. Sahara.  Deserts tend to lie on the western margins or in the centre of continents.  There are also some deserts in mid-latitudes between 30° + 40° north and south of the equator.  These are found within the continental interiors, e.g. Gobi.  Deserts can be very arid, arid and semi-arid.  This can depend on a number of factors including: high-pressure belts, rain shadows, cold ocean currents and continentality (distance from the sea).
Most deserts are global locations where high-pressure belts exist (15° to 30° north and south of the equator).  The air that is heated rises at the equator, moves northward and southward until the air contracts, becomes dense and falls to earth at about the 30° latitude.  Compression warms the descending cold air, forming high pressure. This dense, dry air then moves back to the equator or shifts towards the 60° latitude.  The warm air can hold more moisture and so dry winds occur and atmospheric conditions are very dry.
The weather here is usually very stable in that there are clear skies and little rainfall. Typically less than 100mm of rain a year = desert. The diurnal range is very high. Daytime temperatures can reach 50° and night temperatures can go down to 0°.  The rain shadow effect produced by high mountains can create deserts, for example, the Gobi desert north of the Himalayas.  Here the absence of rainfall creates the arid environment that prevails in this climate type. 
Deserts are also influenced by cold coastal currents which are moving to the equator from higher latitudes.  These occur on the western fringes of continents, e.g. Kalihari.  Winds that blow over these currents are cooled, decreasing their capacity to hold moisture.  When the air contacts hotter land the air heats and can retain moisture. Thus the coastal region remains desert.
Continental deserts are found far inland, e.g. Central Australia.  These areas rarely if ever see rainfall as most has been dropped or evaporated by the winds before they reach them.
Humans who inhabit these regions historically have been nomads, e.g. the Twareg of North Africa.  They have practised pastoral nomadism for thousands of years and moved with the seasons within these regions.
The plant life that exists has developed specifically to accommodate for the lack of rainfall.  Plants like cactus have deep taproots to access water, thick waxy skin and spikes for protection from predators.  The animals have also adapted suitably to exist in this environment.  An example is the camel, which has broad hooves to prevent sinking in the sands and thick pads to protect itself from the heat.  Camel’s eyelashes are long to protect their eyes from the dust/sandstorms and they are capable of travelling vast distances without taking water.

Oil/Gas exploitation - Leaving Cert Geography sample answer


Examine with reference to oil/gas exploitation how humans interact with the rock cycle:
Oil and Natural gas are formed from energy absorbed from the sun through microscopic animals and plants millions of years ago. When these animals died they collected under the sea. Under the immense heat and pressure created from layer and layer of biomass build up Gas and Oil was created.
The amount of heat and the type of biomass determines weather gas or oil is created. If the heat is over 150 degrees c, Gas is created.
This natural gas and oil is less dense than water so it floated to the surface or is trapped by a impermeable layer of rock, eg. Shale.
Gas and Oil are non-renewable resources, which means that they are not sustainable and will eventually run out.
Humans interact with these processes  by searching for and extracting oil and gas from the underground rock reservoirs. Humans also use the hydrocarbons as a source of energy and as a raw material for many useful materials such as plastics.
In Ireland geologists have discovered several gas deposits offshore. Those are located at the Kinsale Gas field, in the celtic sea off the coast of cork and the Corrib gas field.
The Kinsale gas field (Co. Cork) is nearing the end of its life, while the Corrib gas field is expected to supply 60% of Irelands gas requirments
The Corrib gas field, located 83km off the west coast of Co. Mayo is a example of a gas field in Ireland. It was discovered in October 1996, Development started on the Corrib gas field in 2004.
The gas found in the Corrib gas field originates from a Triassic Sandstone reservoir, located about 3000 meters below the sea.
Reservoirs in the field are believed to be approximately 1000 billion cubic feet, 568 billion cubic feet of this is estimated to be extractable.
The gas will be transported from the Corrib gas field to a processing plant on land at Bellanaboy bridge, Here the gas will be purified and then fed through board gais pipe grid.
Shell currently is the main stake holder in the field owning 45%, followed by Statoil with a 36.5% share.
There is a lot of controversy surrounding the Corrib gas field, Local residents are worried that the gas pipeline being developed is unsafe for both their health (through contamination of the water supply and gas leaks leading to possible explosions) and to their environment eg. Fishing industry.
There are allegations of corruption aimed at Shell, the Government and The Gardaí  as five local residents were arrested for defending their own land from the Shell pipeline.
They were known as the Rossport five, they served 94 days in prison before being released due to negative publicity towards shell after mass national and international protests.
The Corrib gas field created 800 temporary jobs through its development and once it is fully operational it is projected to create 130 jobs. Of these 130 jobs 55 will be directly created by shell eg, work on the rigs, pilolts, geologists, medical staff.
The Corrib gas field is valued at about 9.5 billion euros. Unfortunately the Irish economy will only see a estimated 1.7 billion of this due to our low multi national corporation tax.

Fluvial Processes - Leaving Cert Geography


With reference to an example you have studied, describe and account for one way in which humans attempt to influence or control natural processes.
Refer to Fluvial Processes.
Human impact on river processes. People build dams and levees to control river flooding, this has several effects on the operation of natural river processes,
Eg. The Three Gorges Dam in China.
The Three Gorges Dam was completed in 2006, it has affected the natural processes on the Yangtze river.
The dam was built to manage flooding along the river channel and also to generate electricity.
While the dam has prevented the river from flooding by reducing the flow of water, it has interfered with the process of deposition as alluvium that should have been deposited further downstream is now being deposited in the 600km long artificial reservoir that was built behind the dam.
As the fertile alluvium is trapped behind the dam and deposited in the reservoir it also interferes with the natural process of transportation.
Flooding of farmland has been prevented, however, farmland is now deprived of fertile alluvium that would have been transported by the river and deposited during times of flooding.
Farmers now have to use expensive artificial fertilisers to fertilise farmland that used to have a rich supply of fertile alluvium.
The natural habitat of the river Yangtze has also been affected, in 2007 the dolphin has been declared extinct in the river.
Building levees prevents natural flood processes from occouring.                          Eg. The river Rhine in Germany.
Levees are raised river banks that are deposited in the lower stage of a river’s course.
These are natural river landforms, but humans also build levees and raise existing levees to stop a river flooding onto its natural flood plain.
Flood plains are flat, fertile areas. Over time these areas have become densely populated areas and large cities have been built on flood plains eg. Duisburg.
Preventing rivers from over flowing onto their floodplains by interfering with the natural process of flooding has stopped damage to important infrastructure.
But because the levees are so high, the river cannot flood naturally, so it deposits its load on the riverbed. Eventually the bed raises so that the man-made levees are the only thing containing the river and have to be constantly maintained which costs a lot to do.
Floodwater which would normally escape onto the flood plain is now trapped in the river and is funneled downstream where it can easily overflow causing extreme damage.
Levees also cause the river to flow faster as it is constrained by narrower channels. The river Rhine now flows 30% faster.

Hamlet - Easy Summary for Leaving Cert


Hamlet – Comprehensive study guide.
Act 1, Scene 1: Ghost appears to soilders, they decide to tell Hamlet.
Act 1, Scene 2: New king, Hamlets 1st Soliloquy, Hamlet learns about ghost.
Act 1, Scene 3: Laertes and Polonius warn Ophilia to stay away from Hamlet.
Act 1, Scene 4: The ghost appears to Hamlet and the soilders.
Act 1, Scene 5: The ghosts message.

Act 2, Scene 1: Ophilia tells Polonius of Hamlets strange silent visit.
Act 2, Scene 2: King sends R&G to investigate Hamlets madness. Polonius’s theory of hamlets madness, Polonius examines Hamlet, R&G examine Hamlet, Players arrive, Hamlets second soliloquy.

Act 3, Scene 1: King and Polonius spy on Hamlet abusing Ophilia. Third soliloquy “to be or not to be’’ King decides to send Hamlet to england. Polonius decides he will spy on Hamlet and Gertrude.
Act 3, Scene 2: The mouse trap/murder of gonzago preformed, king leaves, Hamlet sent to speak with Gertrude.
Act 3, Scene 3: King prays, admits to murder, Hamlet passes up chance to kill.
Act 3, Scene 4: Hamlet in Gertrudes chamber, Hamlet kills Polonius, Ghosts last appearence.

Act 4, Scene 1: Queen reports Polonius’s killing. R&G go to find Hamlet.
Act 4, Scene 2: R&G and Claudius try to get hamlet to admit where the body is.
Act 4, Scene 3: Hamlet is sent to England.
Act 4, Scene 4: Hamlet sees Fortinbras leading his army to Poland, Fourth soliloquy.
Act 4, Scene 5: Ophelia’s madness, Laertes demands revenge with commoners.
Act 4, Scene 6: Sailors tell Horatio that Hamlet has returned to Denmark.
Act 4: Scene 7: The King and Laertes plan to kill Hamlet another way, Gertrude tells of Ophelias suicide.

Act 5, Scene 1: Hamlet and Gravediggers, Ophilias funeral, Hamlet and Laertes fight.
Act 5, Scene 2: Hamlet tells horatio how he returned to Denmark, Fencing match, Death of Laertes, Hamlet, Gertrude and Claudius. Fortinbrass takes over.


Act 1, Scene 1
Claudius is the king of Denmark when the play opens. The late king hamlet is already when the play begins. Hamlet is the son of the late king and thusfore the Prince of Denmark. Claudious has married the late kings wife, Hamlets mother Gertrude.
A ghost appears to two soldiers, Marcellus and Bernardo while they are on guard duty outside the palace of Elsinore, Denmark. The ghost appears to be almost identical to the late king Hamlet, wearing the same suit of arms etc. Marcellus and Bernardo decide to tell Horatio, who decides to inform Hamlet.
Act 1, Scene 2
It is the morning after the Ghost is witnessed. The king is giving a speech to his courtenners. Hamlet publically disociates himself from his new stepfather with a clever pun.
‘’A little more than kin, and less than kind’’
Afterwords Claudius turns to Hamlet and asks him why he is still mourning his fathers death (as hamlet is still wearing funeral cloths) why ‘’ the clouds still hang ‘’ upon him. Gertrude also appeals to Hamlet to cheer up. Claudius reminds Hamlet that all fathers die, and that Hamlet is still in line for the throne after Claudius dies.
This is where the first sliloquie of the play take place. Hamlet is now alone and we hear that he wishes he could die, that his skin would ‘’melt’’ and that he could evaporate and cease to exist. The contimplates suicide and wishes that God hadn’t made suicide ‘’self-slaughter’’ a sin. Anguished, Hamlet laments his father’s death and Gertrude’s hastly marrage to Claudious.
‘’O, most wicket speed to post with such dexterity to incestuous sheets’’
Hamlet remembers how deeply in love his parents seemed. He is pissed off at the thought of that now, considering less than two months on his mother married his fathers far inferior brother Claudious.
"O that this too too solid flesh would melt"
Hamlet quiets suddenly as Horatio comes into the room. He is followed by the two soilders Marcellus and Bernardo. Horatio was a close friend of Hamlet at the university in Wittenberg. Hamlet is happy to see him. Horatio explains to Hamlet that he came to see the late King Hamlets funeral. Hamlet curtky replies that Horatio came to see his mother’s wedding. Horatio then tells Hamlet about the ghost and hamlet agrees to keep watch in hope that he will see his fathers ghost.
Act 1, Scene 3
Polonius is Claudius’s right hand man, Lairtez is is Polonius’s Son and Ophelia his daughter. In Polonius’s house, Laertes prepares to leave for france. When he is saying goodbye to Ophilia he warns her not to fall in love with Hamlet. Laertez claims that Hamlet is too far above her as he is royalty to love her Honorably.Also That Hamlet is not only responcible for his own feelings but for his position in the state, it may be impossible for him to marry her and that he is only trying to seduce her.
Polonius asks Ophilia what Lairtez said to her before he left. Ophilia says that it was ‘’something touching Lord Hamlet’’. Polonius asks her about her relationship with Hamlet. She tells him that Hamlet claims to love her. Polonius strongly echos Laertes advice and does not let Ophilia see Hamlet anymore. Ophilia pledges to obey her father.
Act 1, Scene 4
It is now night time outside the castle. Hamlet, Horatio and Marcellus are waiting for the ghost to appear. Eventually around midnight the ghost appears, and hamlet calls out to it. The ghost calls hamlet to follow it out into the night. Horatio and Marcellus urge Hamlet not to follow, begging him to consider the ghost may lead him into danger.
Hamlet himself is unsure whether the ghost is infact his fathers spirit or some sort of evil demon. But Hamlet declares he has nothing to live for and that the ghost will not be able to harm him. He follows after the ghost and dissapears into the darkness. Horatio says that the heavens will look after hamlet, although after a few moments.
‘’Something is rotten in the state of Denmark’’ – Marceilles (the guard)
Marceulles is refering to both the idea that the ghost is a ominious omen for Denmark and to the larger theme of the connection between the moral legitimacy of the ruler and the health of the state of Denmark.
Marcellus says they should follow and try to protect Hamlet, after a moment they both follow after Hamlet and the ghost.
Act 1, Scene 5
In the darkness the ghost speaks to Hamlet, he claims to be Hamlets father and has come to ask Hamlet to revenge his death.
‘’Foul and Unnatural Murder’’ – The ghost.
Hamlet is shocked to find out that his father has been murdered. The ghost continues on to tell Hamlet how as he slept in the garden a villian poured poison in his ear, The very villian who now wears the crown – Claudius.
‘’The serpent that did sting thy fathers life/ Now wears his crown”
 The ghost exhorts (strongly encourages) Hamlet to seek revenge, telling him that Claudius has corrupted Denmark and Gertrude, having taken her from her first marriage and seduced her into the foul lust of their incestuous union. But the ghost urges Hamlet not to take action against his mother and instead ‘’leave her to heaven’’ and to her own conscience.
‘’Let not the royal bed of Denmark be a couch for luxury and damned incest.’’
As the dawn breaks the ghost dissapears. Hamlet swears to remember the ghost and to revenge his fathers foul and unnatural murder. Horatio and Marcellus arrive and frantically ask Hamlet what happened. Hamlet is shaken and refuses to tell them. Hamlet then insists that they swear not to tell anyone what they have seen and to never reveal his motives. He tells them that he may pretend to be a madman, or take an ‘’antic disposition’’


Act 2, Scene 1
This first part of this scen is cut from many plays so dont waste your important session time studying it.
Ophelia rushes in to Polonius, really fightenend. She excalims how Hamlet came into her closet (study/sewing room) without warning. He grabbed her wrist, stared at her, sighed, and left.. all without saying a word. His clothes were scraggy, unbuttoned and unlaced.
However, Polonius isn’t confuzed, He immediately jumps to the conclusion that
‘’This is the very ecstacy of love’’
He says that he is sorry to have misjudged Hamlets lust for her, But Polonius seems more interested in rushing off to tell Claudius. He makes a comment in witch it is better that he tells Claudius rather than not.
Act 2, Scene 2
The scene take place within the castle, Hamlets friends from Wittenberg, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are welcomed by Claudious and Gertrude. The king and queen are increasingly concerned with Hamlet’s errative behavior and his apparent inability to recover from his fathers death. Claudious and Gertrude ask Rosencranz and Guildernstern to meet up with Hamlet in Elsinore in the hope that they might be able to cheer Hamlet out of his melancholy, or at least discover the true cause of it. The lads agree to investigate and Gertrude has servants take them to her ‘’too much changed’’ son Hamlet.
Polonius enters the room anouncing the return of ambassadors who were sent to Norawary.
Eventually Polonius turns to the subject of Hamlet with the King. After a while Polonius says that the Prince is mad in love with Ophelia and he continues to show Claudius and Gertrude letters and love poems that Hamlet has given to Ophilia. Polonius proposes a plan to test his theory that this is the cause of Hamlets insanity. Polonius’s plan is to hide behind an arras (a curtain) in the lobby and listen in on Hamlet as Ophilia confronts him. This will enable them to see whether or not Hamlet is gone mad over Ophilia. The king agrees to the plan. Gertrude sees Hamlet coming and Polonius decides to speak with this prince. Gertrude and Claudius exit.
Polonius attempts to speak with Hamlet, who appears insane. Hamlet calls Polonius a ‘’fishmonger’’ and answers all of Polonius’s questions irrationally, But in many of Hamlets seeming insane statements are subtle comments about Polonius’s pomposity (overrated self image) and old age. Polonius comments that Hamlet is clearly mad but his replies are often ‘’pregnant’’ with meaning.
“Though this be madness, yet there is method in’t” -Polnius
As Polonius leaves, Rosencrantz and Guildernstern enter. Hamlet seems pleased to see them. They discuss Hamlets unhappiness about the recent affairs in Denmark. Hamlet then asks them why the have come, they claim to have meerly wanted to visit him. Hamlet sternly declairs that he knows that the King and queen have sent them and Rosencrantz and Guildernstern admit to this being the truth. Hamlet says that he knows that they were sent because of his meloncholy in witch everything and everyone appears sterile and worthless.
Rosencrantz smiles and tells Hamlet that a group of traveling actors will preform a play, and that this should cheer him up. The trumpets blow, announcing the arrival of the actors. Hamlet tells Rosencrants and Guildenstern that they are welcome to stay  but that his ‘’uncle-father’’ and ‘’aunt-mother’’ are caught up with his madness. He is mad only some of the time and sane the rest of the time.
‘’ I am but mad north north-west. When the wind is southerly, I know a hawk from a handsaw.”
Polonius now enters and announces the arrival of the ‘’players’’ (actors). The actors follow him into the room. Hamlet welcomes them and asks one of them to give a speech about the fall of Troy and the death of the Trojan king and queen. Hamlet is impressed with the actors speech and asks Polonius to have them escorted to guestrooms. He announces that the next night they will hear “the murder of Gonzago’’ preformed, with a additional short speech that he will write himself. Hamlet leaves Rosencrantz and Guildernstern and now stands alone in the room.
(Soliloquay)
Here is a solaquay where Hamlet immeditly begins cursing himself. He bitterly comments that the player (actor) who gave the speech about Troy, was able to summon a depth of feeling, emotion and expression for long-dead figures that mean nothing to him, While Hamlet is unable to take action, even with his far more powerful motives. Hamlet decides to come up with a trap for Claudious. His plan is to have the Players preform a play closly resembling the murder of King Hamlet. Hamlet figures that if the king is guilty he will show some visable sign of guilt when he sees his sin reenacted on stage. Then, Hamlet comes to the conclusion that he will obtain definitive proof of Claudius’s guilt.
‘’The play’s the thing wherein I’ll catch the conscience of the king’’
(end of Soliloquay)
Act 3, Scene 1
Claudius and Gertrude discuss Hamlet’s irrational behavior with Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. Hamlets friends say they could not figure out the cause of his melancholy. They tell the king an queen about Hamlets enthusiasm for the players. Encouraged, Gertrude and Claudius agree to go and see the play. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern leave. Claudius asks Gertrude to leave as well as he and Polonius want to spy on Hamlet and Ophelia. Polonius asks Ophelia to walk around the lobby. Polonius hears Hamlet coming , He and the Kng hide.


(Soliloquay)
Hamlet enters, speaking thoughtfully to himself, He is contemplating the question whether or not he should commit suicide to end his pain/
‘’To be, or not to be: that is the question”
Hamlet continues stating that the miseries of life are so bad that no one would willingly bear them, except that they are afraid of ‘’something after death’’ Because we do not know what happens to us after death, we would rather ‘’bear those ills we have’’ rather than ‘’fly to others that we know not of’’
(end of Solioquay)
In mid thought hamlet sees Ophelia coming. As Polonius orderen, she tells hamlet that she wishes to return the tokens of love he has given her. Hamlet gets pissed off and Angrilly denies to have given her anything. He claims to have never loved as ophelia as well as claiming to once of loved her. Hamlet bitterly comments on the wretchedness of humankind and then insults Ophielia by telling her to become a nun.
‘’Get thee to a nunery’’ rather than become a ‘’breeder of sinners’’
Hamlet then goes on to criticize women for making men behave like monsters and for contributing to the world’s dishonesty by painting their faces more beautiful than they are.
Nb.- Misogyny = General hatrad of women by men
He then works himself into a rage, Hamlet denounces Ophelia, Women: (Frailty they name is woman’’), Men: (“Man delights non me”) and Humankind in general: (“A foul and pestilent congregation of vapours”) As Hamlet storms out, Ophelia mourns Hamlet’s once ‘’Noble mind’’ that now has apparently lapsed into madness.
During this scene Hamlet insults Polonius (‘’that he may play the fool nowhere but in his own house”) and Threatens Claudius (“Those who are married, all but one should live’’) so it is possible that he is aware of their presence.
Claudius and Polonius come out from behind the tapestry. Claudius says that Hamlet’s strange behavior is clearly not due to his love for Ophilia, He also says that Hamlets speech does not seem like one of insanity. Claudius says that he fears that Hamlets melancholy sits on something dangerous in Hamlets soul and when it comes out he fears what will happen. He declares that he will send Hamlet to England, in the hope that a change of scenery will help him (“expell”) get over his troubles. Polonius agrees to this idea, but he still believes that Hamlet’s agitation is becuase of his love for Ophelia. Polonius asks Claudius to send Hamlet to Gertrude’s ‘’chamber’’ after the play, where Polonius can hide again and watch their conversation secretly. Here he hopes to learn for certain whether Hamlet is really mad with love. Claudius agrees, saying that:
‘’Madness in great ones’’ must be carefully watched.
Act 3, Scene 2
It is now evening in the castle hall where the play will take place. Hamlet anxiously lectures the players on how to act the parts he has written. Horatio enters and Hamlet is pleased to see him and praises him on his qualities of self-control. Since Horatio already knows that Claudius is suspected of late kings murder, He asks Horatio to keep a close eye on Claudius to watch out for any eratic behavior that they could discuss after. Horatio agrees, saying that if Claudius shows any signs of guilt, he will detect them.
The audiens now pours into the room, Hamlet warns Horatio that he will start acting strange. When Claudius asks how Hamlet is his responce depicts insanity. Hamlet asks Polonius about his historyas an Actor and torments Ophelia with erotic puns.
The players begin to enact the play in full, and we learn that the man who kills the king is the kings nephew. Hamlet keeps a running commentry throughout. Through the commentry Hamlet continuly teases ophilia with sexual references. The queen leaves the king to sleep, and while he is sleeping, a man murderes him by pouring poison in his ear.
When the murderer pours the poison into the kings ear, Claudius gets up and cries out for the light. This means the play comes to a sudden halt and the whole hall errupts. The king flees the room, followed by the audience. The scene quiets.
Hamlet is now left alone with Hoatio and they both agree that Claudius’s behavior was telling. Now Hamlet is extremely excited. He continues to act frantic and scatterbrained, inventing little poems. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern arrive to tell Hamlet that he is wanted in his mother’s chamber. Rosencrantz asks hamlet about the cause of his ‘’disteper’’ again. Hamlet replies angrily and accuses the two of trying to play him as if he were a musical “pipe’’. Polonius enters and asks Hamlet to go to visit the queen. Hamlet says he will go to her in a moment and asks for a moment alone.
He readys himself to speak with his mother, resolving to be brutually honest with her but not to lose control of himself:
‘’I will speak daggers to her, but use none’’
Act 3, Scene 3
Elsewhere in the castle, King Claudius speaks to Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. Claudius is badly shaken by the play and considers Hamlet’s apparent madness to be dangerous, Claudius asks the pair to escort Hamlet to England immediately. The pair leave to make plans.
Polonius enters and reminds Claudius of his plan to hide behind the tapastry and listen in on Hamlet and Gertrude. Polonius promices to tell Claudius what he overhears. Polonius then leaves to go spy.
Claudius is now alone, here we hear Claudius admit to murdering the King.  Claudius expresses guilt and remorse over his sin. A brother’s murder he says, is the oldest sin and ‘’hath the primal eldest curse upon’t ‘’. He wants to ask for forgiveness, but he says that he is unprepared to give up that which he gained by committing the murder. Ie. The crown and the queen. He then falls to his knees and begins to pray.
Hamlet sneeks to the room and prepares himself to kill the unseeing Claudius. But it suddenly occurs to him that if he kills Claudius while he is praying, Claudius’s soul will be sent to heaven. This is hardly an adequate revenge.
Hamlet decides to kill Claudius when he is sinning (drunk, angry or lustful) Hamlet leaves. Claudius gets up and declares that he has been unable to pray sincerly.
‘’My words fly up, my thoughts remain below’’
Act 3, Scene 4 (climax)
This scene takes place in Gertrude’s chamber. Polonius is hiding behind an arras (tapestry) waiting to eavesdrop on the conversation and to find the true cause of Hamlets madness. Polonius encourages Gertrude to be harsh with Hamlet regarding his bizarre and threatening behavior. Gertrude agrees.
Hamlet storms into Gertrude’s chamber and asks his mother why she has sent for him. She says that he has offended his father (meaning Claudius) Hamlet interrupts her and says she has offended his father (meaning the dead King). By marrying Claudius. Hamlet abuses her with an almost violent intensity and declares that it is his intention to make her fully aware of the depth of her sin.
Fearing for her life Gertrude cries out for help. From behind the arras Polonius hearing her, also cries out for help. Hamlet now realises that someone is behind he arras listening in and assuming that it is claudius, Hamlet cries:‘’How Now!, a rat?’’ Then he draws a sword and stabs it through the arras, killing the unseeing Polonius.
Gertrude asks what Hamlet has just done. Hamlet replies ‘’Nay, I know not:/Is it the king?” The queen says his action was a ‘’rash and bloody’’deed. He replies that it was almost as rash and bloody as murdering a king and marrying his brother. Gertrude is shocked and responds ‘’ as kill a king!’’ Hamlet replies saying she heard him correctly.
Hamlet lifts the arras to discover Polonius’s body. He realises that he killed a relatively innocent man. He bids the old man farewell calling him a ‘’ intruding fool’’
Hamlet now turns to his mother. Insteed of turning to the fact that Claudius murdered the King, Hamlet procastonates on guilting Gertrude. Hamlet shows her a picture of the dead king and a picture of Claudius. He bitterly comments continously on the superiarty of his late father to Claudius. Gertrude pleads with hamlet to stop, and says that he has turned her eyes onto her soul and she hates what she sees. Hamlet continues to denounce her and abuse Claudius, until, suddenly the ghost of his father appears again.
Hamlet speaks to the ghost but Gertrude cannot see it. She believes Hamlet to be crazy. The Ghost reminds Hamlet of his purpose, That Hamlet has not yet killed Claudius and he much achieve his revenge. Hamlet describes the ghost to Gertrude but she sees nothing, The Ghost dissapears. Hamlet despertly tries to convince Gertrude that he is not mad, and that he merely feigned madness all along. He says he is not mad but ‘’mad in craft’’ Hamlet begs Gertrude not to tell anyone this, and because she is still shaken from him condeming her, she agrees. Hamlet reminds his mother that he must sail to England with Rosencrantz and Guildenstern and he says he will treat them with suspision as he is aware that their loyalties are with Claudius. Hamlet then leaves the room dragging Polonius’s body with him.
Act 4, Scene 1
Gertrude runs into Claudius who is chatting with Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. Gertrude tells Claudius she wants to speak alone. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern leave. Gertrude says that hamlet is insane and she also tells him that Hamlet killed Polonius. Claudius realises that if he were to be the one hiding behind the arras, he would of been killed. Claudius wonders aloud how he can tell the public without damaging his hold on Denmark. He also tells Gertrude that he must ship Hamlet to England immediatly and to find a way to explain Hamlet’s misdeed to the court and the public. He then calls Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, tells them about the murder and sends them to find Hamlet.
Act 4, Scene 2
Elsewhere in Elsinore Hamlet just finished disposing of Polonius’s body. It is (‘’safely stowed’’) Rosencrantz and Guildenstern come in and ask Hamlet where he hid the body. Hamlet confuses the two with witty responces such as:
Feigning (taking) offence to being questioned, Hamlet accouses the two of being spies for Claudius. After a while he agrees to allow Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to take him to see Claudius.
Act 4, Scene 3
The king is telling a group of attendants about Polonius’s death and his intention to send Hamlet to England. Hamlet is brought to Claudius under guard and presured to reveal where he hid Polonius’s body. Hamlet responds with clever yet subtle apparently insane responces,
‘’At supper’’ ; “Not where he eats, but where he is eaten’’
“The body is with the king, but the king is not with the body’’
but eventually reveles that his body is under the stairs. The king dispatches his attendants to look there. The king tells Hamlet that he must leave for England at once, Hamlet enthusiastically agrees. He exits along with Rosencrantz and Guildenstern.
Claudius is not alone and states his hope that England will obey the sealed orderes he sent in a letter to have Hamlet put to death. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern have this letter.
Act 4, Scene 4 (climax)
This scene is set on the border to denmark. Young Prince Fortinbrass marches at the head of his army travelling through Denmark on the way to attack Poland. Prince Fortinbras orders his captain to ask the King of Denmark for permission to travel through his lands. On his way he encounters Hamlet, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern on their way to the ship bound for England. Hamlet is curious about the cause of the conflict, The man tells him that the armies will fight over
‘’A little patch of land / That hath in it no profit but the name’’
Hamlet is astonished by the thought that a bloody war could be fought over something so insignificant. Hamlet marvels that human beings are able to act so passionatly and violently over such little matters. By comparison, Hamlet has a great amount to gain from seeking his own bloody revenge on Claudious, and yet is still delaying to act.
‘’How all occasions do inform against me’’
 Hamlet is disgusted with himself for failing to gain revenge and declares that from this moment on, his thoughts will be bloody.
‘’My thoughts be bloody, or nothing worth’’
Act 4, Scene 5
Gertrude and Horatio discuss Ophilia. Gertrude does not wish to see her, but Horatio says that Ophilia should be pitped. Horatio explains that Ophilias grief has made her go insane.
Ophilia enters with flowers in her hands. She is clearly gone mad. She is holding flowers and sings strange songs. Claudius enters and sees Ophilia. He says that her grief comes fromher father’s death. A gentleman enters to warn the king that Laertes has come with a mob of commenors. The mob whispers ‘’Laertes shall be king’’. A furious Laertes storms into the hall, with the ambition to avenge his fathers death. Claudius talks Laertes down calmly, asks him to hear his version of events and bluntly blames Hamlet for the death of his father.
Act 5, Scene 1
In the churchyard, two gravediggers shovel out a grave for Ophelia. They argue whether Ophelia should be buried in the churchyard, since her death looks like a suicide. The first gravedigger, speaks cleverly and mischievously.
Hamlet and Horatio enter at a distance and watch the gravediggers work. Hamlet looks with wonder at the skulls they excavate to make room for the fresh grave and speculates darkly about what occupations the owners of these skulls served in life. Hamlet asks the gravedigger whose grave he digs, and the gravedigger spars with him verbally, first claiming that the grave is his own, since he is digging it, then that the grave belongs to no man and no woman, because men and women are living things and the occupant of the grave will be dead. At last he admits that it belongs to one “that was a woman sir; but, rest her soul, she’s dead”.

Hamlet picks up a skull, and the gravedigger tells him that the skull belonged to Yorick, King Hamlet’s jester. Hamlet tells Horatio that as a child he knew Yorick and is appalled at the sight of the skull. He realizes forcefully that all men will eventually become dust, even great men like Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar. Hamlet imagines that Julius Caesar has disintegrated and is now part of the dust used to patch up a wall.

Suddenly, the funeral procession for Ophelia enters the churchyard, including Claudius, Gertrude, Laertes, and many mourning courtiers. Hamlet, wondering who has died, notices that the funeral rites seem “maimed,” indicating that the dead man or woman took his or her own life. He and Horatio hide as the procession approaches the grave.

As Ophelia is laid in the earth, Hamlet realizes it is she who has died. At the same moment, Laertes becomes infuriated with the priest, who says that to give Ophelia a proper Christian burial would profane the dead.

Laertes leaps into Ophelia’s grave to hold her once again in his arms. Grief-stricken and outraged, Hamlet bursts upon the company, declaring in agonized fury his own love for Ophelia. He leaps into the grave and fights with Laertes, saying that
“forty thousand brothers / Could not, with all their quantity of love, / make up my sum”
Hamlet cries that he would do things for Ophelia that Laertes could not dream of.
Hamlet and Laertes are pulled apart by the funeral company. Gertrude and Claudius declare that Hamlet is mad. Hamlet storms off, and Horatio follows. The king urges Laertes to be patient, and to remember their plan for revenge.

Act 5, Scene 2
It is the next day at Elsinore Castle, Hamlet tells Horatio how he swapped the letter on the boat to England with one saying that Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are to be killed. Hamlet says he is not sympatethic towards Rosencrantz and Guildenstern as they betrayed, but he does show remorse for showing such hostility towards Laertes. He compares Laertes’ desire to avenge his fathers death with his own.
Their conversation is interrupted by Osric. Osric is a foolish courtier who agrees with absolutly everything Hamlet says. He has come to tell them that Claudius wants Hamlet to fence with Laertes, and the king as made a bet with Laertes that Hamlet will win. Finally a lord comes in and asks Hamlet if he is ready for the match. Hamlet agrees to fight. The royal family enter the hall. Hamlet asks Laertes to forgive him. Laertes says he will not forgive him until a elder, has advised him. But in the meantime, he accepts Hamlets offer of loe.
They select their blunt swords. The king says that if Hamlet wins the first or second hit, He will drink to Hamlet’s health and then throw into the cup a valuable gem (witch is actually the poison) and give the wine to hamlet. The duel begins Hamlet gets the first hit in, but declines to drink from the cup. They play another round. Hamlet gets the second hit in too. Gertrude now gets up to drink from the cup, Claudius tries to stop her but she drinks anyway. Claudius mumurs ‘’it is the poison’d cup: it is too late’’
Laertes says that to wound Hamlet with the poisoned sword is almost against his conscience, but they fight again and Laertes hits Hamelt with the sword drawing blood. They start having a proper fight and manage to exchange swords, Hamlet wounds Laertes with the poisoned sword.
Gertrude falls and Laertes who is poisoned by his own sword, says
“I am justly kill’d with my own treachery’’.
Gertrude then moans that the cup must have been poisoned, she calls out to Hamelt, then dies.
Laertes tells Hamlet that they both are going too die, then proclaims that it was all the kings idea. The poison in the cup and the poison on the swords.
Hamlet in a fury, runs at Claudius with the poisoned sword and stabs him with hit, then forces him to drink the poisoned wine. Claudius dies, crying out for help. Hamlet exchanges a last forgiveness with Laeters, who dies after absolving Hamlet.
There is a sound of marching, Fortinbras has come from Poland. Hamlet tells Horatio again that he is dying, He urges Horatio not to take his own life because of the great loss’s, Insteed he wants him to stay alive and tell his story. He says that he wishes Fortinbras to be made King of Denmark, then Hamlet dies.
Fortinbras marches into the room accompied by the English ambassadors, who announce that Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are dead. Horatio says that he will tell everyone the story that led to the gruesome display in the room. Fortinbras then orders for Hamlet to be carried away like a soldier.